Abstract
Parents of children with emotional and behavioral problems often experience emotional regulation difficulties and decreased well-being. The study examined two models (mediating and moderating) explaining associations between difficulties in emotion regulation, self-compassion, and subjective well-being among parents of children with emotional and behavioral problems. The sample comprised 662 parents of children attending the child and adolescent psychiatric center of a public hospital. Measurements included: Personal Wellbeing Index, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, and Self-Compassion Scale. A regression-based path analysis directly tested the proposed moderation model using model 1 in PROCESS. Path analysis using AMOS examined the mediation model. Results supported the moderation model wherein self-compassion moderated the association between difficulties in emotion regulation and well-being. The interaction between difficulties in emotion regulation and self-compassion was significant in predicting subjective well-being. Increased difficulties in emotion regulation were associated with decreased subjective well-being, and increased self-compassion was associated with increased subjective well-being. Parents with high difficulties in emotion regulation and low self-compassion had the worst subjective well-being. The mediation model, wherein difficulties in emotion regulation mediated the association between self-compassion and subjective well-being. was not supported. The results support the subjective well-being homeostasis theory, suggesting self-compassion is a protective factor. Cultivating self-compassion may foster parents’ ability to respond to emotional distress and improve well-being.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
Arch, J. J., Brown, K. W., Dean, D. J., Landy, L. N., Brown, K. D., & Laudenslager, M. L. (2014). Self-compassion training modulates alpha-amylase, heart rate variability, and subjective responses to social evaluative threat in women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 42, 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.12.018
Athay, M. M. (2012). Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) in caregivers of clinically-referred youth: Psychometric properties and mediation analysis. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 39(1–2), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-011-0390-8
Balzarotti, S., Biassoni, F., Villani, D., Prunas, A., & Velotti, P. (2016). Individual differences in cognitive emotion regulation: Implications for subjective and psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(1), 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9587-3
Barlow, R., Goldsmith Turow, R., & Gerhart, J. (2017). Trauma appraisals, emotion regulation difficulties, and self-compassion predict posttraumatic stress symptoms following childhood abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 65, 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.01.006
Barnard, L., & Curry, J. (2011). Self-compassion: Conceptualizations, correlations & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15, 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025754
Berking, M., & Whitley, B. (2014). Affection regulation training: A practitioner’s manual. Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1022-9_1.
Binion, G., & Zalewski, M. (2018). Maternal emotion dysregulation and the functional organization of preschoolers’ emotional expressions and regulatory behaviors. Emotion, 18(3), 386. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000319
Bögels, S. M., Lehtonen, A., & Restifo, K. (2010). Mindful parenting in mental health care. Mindfulness, 1(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0014-5
Bohadana, G., Morrissey, S., & Paynter, J. (2019). Self-compassion: A novel predictor of stress and quality of life in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(10), 4039–4052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04121-x
Buckholdt, K. E., Parra, G. R., & Jobe-Shields, L. (2014). Intergenerational transmission of emotion dysregulation through parental invalidation of emotions: Implications for adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(2), 324–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9768-4
Castilho, P., Carvalho, S. A., Marques, S., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2017). Self-compassion and emotional intelligence in adolescence: A multigroup mediational study of the impact of shame memories on depressive symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(3), 759–768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0613-4
Cohen, E. (2006). “Parental Level of Awareness”: An Organizing Scheme of Parents’ Belief Systems as a Guide in Parent Therapy. In L. Jacobs (Ed.), Wachs, C (pp. 39–64). Attachment Identification & Riflective Function. Rowman & Littlefield Publication.
Crowe, M., Inder, M., Joyce, P., Luty, S., Moor, S., & Carter, J. (2011). Was it something I did wrong? A qualitative analysis of parental perspectives of their child’s bipolar disorder. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 18(4), 342–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2010.01673.x
Cummins, R. A. (2010). Subjective wellbeing, homeostatically protected mood and depression: a synthesis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9167-0
Cummins, R. A., Eckersley, R., Pallant, J., Van Vugt, J., & Misajon, R. (2003). Developing a national index of subjective wellbeing: The Australian Unity wellbeing index. Social Indicators Research, 64, 159–190. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024704320683
Cummins, R. A., Lau, A. A., Mellor, D., & Stokes, M. A. (2009). Encouraging governments to enhance the happiness of their nation: Step 1: Understand subjective wellbeing. Social Indicators Research, 91(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9324-6
Cummins, R. A., Li, N., Wooden, M., & Stokes, M. (2014). A demonstration of set-points for subjective wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 183–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9444-9
Diedrich, A., Burger, J., Kirchner, M., & Berking, M. (2017). Adaptive emotion regulation mediates the relationship between self-compassion and depression in individuals with unipolar depression. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90, 247–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12107
Dodge, R., Daly, A., Huyton, J., & Sanders, L. (2012). The challenge of defining wellbeing. Journal of International Wellbeing, 2(3), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v2i3.4
Duncombe, M. E., Havighurst, S. S., Holland, K. A., & Frankling, E. J. (2012). The contribution of parenting practices and parent emotion factors in children at risk for disruptive behavior disorders. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43(5), 715–733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0290-5
Duncombe, M. E., Havighurst, S. S., Kehoe, C. E., Holland, K. A., Frankling, E. J., & Stargatt, R. (2016). Comparing an emotionand a behavior-focused parenting program as part of a multisystemic intervention for child conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45(3), 320–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.963855
Findlay-Jones, A. (2017). The relevance of self-compassion as an intervention target in mood and anxiety disorders: A narrative review based on an emotion regulation framework. Clinical Psychologist, 21, 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12131
Finlay-Jones, A. L., Rees, C. S., & Kane, R. T. (2015). Self-compassion, emotion regulation and stress among Australian psychologists: Testing an emotion regulation model of self-compassion using structural equation modeling. PloS one, 10(7), e0133481. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133481
Gerkensmeyer, J., Perkins, S. M., Day, J., Austin, J. K., Scott, E. L., & Wu, J. (2011). Maternal depressive symptoms when caring for a child with mental health problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 685–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-011-9445-4
Gilbert, P. (2010). An introduction to compassion focused therapy in cognitive behavior therapy. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3, 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2010.3.2.97
Gilbert, P. (2014). The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 6–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12043
Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: A pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 353–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.507
Gouveia, M. J., Carona, C., Canavarro, M. C., & Moreira, H. (2016). Self-compassion and dispositional mindfulness are associated with parenting styles and parenting stress: The mediating role of mindful parenting. Mindfulness, 7(3), 700–712. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0507-y
Gratz, K., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment, 26, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
Gratz, K. L., Bardeen, J. R., Levy, R., Dixon-Gordon, K. L., & Tull, M. T. (2015). Mechanisms of change in an emotion regulation group therapy for deliberate self-harm among women with borderline personality disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 65, 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.12.005
Gratz, K. L., & Tull, M. T. (2010). Emotion regulation as a mechanism of change in acceptance-and mindfulness-based treatments. In R. A. Baer (Ed.), Assessing mindfulness and acceptance processes in clients: Illuminating the theory and practice of change (pp. 107–133). Context Press/New Harbinger Publications.
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Hanley, A. W., Mehling, W. E., & Garland, E. L. (2017). Holding the body in mind: Interoceptive awareness, dispositional mindfulness and psychological well-being. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 99, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.05.014
Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modelling (white paper). http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf. Accessed 10.03.2022.
Hinshaw, S. P., & Stier, A. (2008). Stigma as related to mental disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 367–393. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV.CLINPSY.4.022007.141245
International Wellbeing Group. (2006). Personal wellbeing index (4th ed.). Australian Centre on Quality of Life, School of Psychology, Deakin University.
International Wellbeing Group. (2013). Personal wellbeing index-adult. Australian Centre on Quality of Life, School of Psychology, Deakin University.
Inwood, E., & Ferrari, M. (2018). Mechanisms of change in the relationship between self-compassion, emotion regulation, and mental health: A systematic review. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 10(2), 215–235.
Jefferson, F. A., Shires, A., & McAloon, J. (2020). Parenting self-compassion: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 11(9), 2067–2088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01401-x
John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301–1334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x
Kaufman, E. A., Xia, M., Fosco, G., Yaptangco, M., Skidmore, C. R., & Crowell, S. E. (2015). The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale Short Form (DERS-SF): Validation and replication in adolescent and adult samples. Journal of Psychopathology & Behavioral Assessment, 38(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9529-3
Körner, A., Coroiu, A., Copeland, L., Gomez-Garibello, C., Albani, C., Zenger, M., & Brähler, E. (2015). The role of self-compassion in buffering symptoms of depression in the general population. PLoS One, 10(10), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136598
Krieger, T., Altenstien, D., Baettig, I., Doerig, N., & Holtforth, M. (2013). Self-compassion in depression: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and avoidance in depressed outpatients. Behavior Therapy, 44, 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.04.004
Leary, M., Tate, E., Adams, C., Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 887–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887
Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behaviour problems on caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00732.x
Lieneman, C. C., Girard, E. I., Quetsch, L. B., & McNeil, C. B. (2020). Emotion regulation and attrition in Parent-Child interaction therapy. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(4), 978–996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01674-4
Lindgren, E., Söderberg, S., & Skär, L. (2016). Being a parent to a young adult with mental illness in transition to adulthood. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 37(2), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2015.1092621
Mak, W. W. S., & Cheung, R. Y. M. (2012). Psychological distress and subjective burden of caregivers of people with mental illness: The role of affiliate stigma and face concern. Community Mental Health Journal, 48, 270–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-011-9422-9
Murfield, J., Moyle, W., Jones, C., & O’Donovan, A. (2020a). Self-compassion, health outcomes, and family carers of older adults: An integrative review. Clinical Gerontologist, 43(5), 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2018.1560383
Murfield, J., Moyle, W., O’Donovan, A., & Ware, R. S. (2020b). The role of self-compassion, dispositional mindfulness, and emotion regulation in the psychological health of family carers of older adults. Clinical Gerontologist, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2020.1846650
Neff, K., & Germer, C. (2013). A pilot study and randomized control trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923
Neff, K. D. (2003a). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Neff, K. D. (2003b). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860390129863
Neff, K. D. (2012). The science of self-compassion. In C. Germer & R. Siegel (Eds.), Compassion and wisdom in psychotherapy (pp. 79–92). Guilford Press.
Neff, K. D., & Beretvas, S. (2013). The role of self-compassion in romantic relationships. Self and Identity, 12(1), 78–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.639548
Neff, K. D., & Faso, D. J. (2015). Self-compassion and well-being in parents of children with autism. Mindfulness, 6(4), 938–947. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0359-2
Neff, K. D., Rude, S. S., & Kirkpatrick, K. (2007). An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 908–916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002
Oruche, U. M., Gerkensmeyer, J., Stephan, L., Wheeler, C. A., & Hanna, K. M. (2012). The described experience of primary caregivers of children with mental health needs. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 26(5), 382–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2011.12.006
Perasso, G., & Velotti, P. (2017). Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 1–3). Springer.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
Prentice, K., Rees, C., & Finlay-Jones, A. (2021). Self-compassion, wellbeing, and distress in adolescents and young adults with chronic medical conditions: The mediating role of emotion regulation difficulties. Mindfulness, 12(9), 2241–2252.
Price, C. J., & Hooven, C. (2018). Interoceptive awareness skills for emotion regulation: Theory and approach of mindful awareness in body-oriented therapy (MABT). Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 798. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00798
Psychogiou, L., Legge, K., Parry, E., Mann, J., Nath, S., Ford, T., & Kuyken, W. (2016). Self-compassion and parenting in mothers and fathers with depression. Mindfulness, 7(4), 896–908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0528-6
Scoglio, A. A. J., Rudat, D. A., Garvert, D., Jarmolowski, M., Jackson, C., & Herman, J. L. (2015). Self-compassion and responses to trauma: The role of emotion regulation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515622296
Sirois, F. M., Bögels, S., & Emerson, L. M. (2019). Self-compassion improves parental well-being in response to challenging parenting events. Journal of Psychology, 153(3), 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1523123
Smith, A. M., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2014). Health and well-being in midlife parents of children with special health needs. Families, Systems, & Health, 32(3), 303. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000049
The International Wellbeing Group. (2013). Personal Wellbeing Index (5th ed.). Australian Centre on Quality of Life, Deakin University.
Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2007). Regulation of positive emotions: Emotion regulation strategies that promote resilience. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(3), 311–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9015-4
Van der Sanden, R., Bos, A., Stutterheim, S., Pryor, J., & Kok, G. (2013). Experiences of stigma by association among family members of people with mental illness. Rehabilitation Psychology, 58, 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031752
Vaughan, E., Feinn, R., Bernard, S., Brereton, M., & Kaufman, J. S. (2013). Relationships between child emotional and behavioral symptoms and caregiver strain and parenting stress. Journal of Family Issues, 34, 534–556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X12440949
Vettese, L., Dyer, C., Li, W., & Wekerle, C. (2011). Does self-compassion mitigate the association between childhood maltreatment and later emotion regulation difficulties? A preliminary investigation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 9, 480–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-011-9340-7
Vohra, R., Madhavan, S., Sambamoorthi, U., & Peter, C. S. (2014). Access to services, quality of care, and family impact for children with autism, other developmental disabilities, and other mental health conditions. Autism, 18, 815–826. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313512902
Ward, L., & Gwinner, K. (2014). “It broke our hearts”: Understanding parents’ lived experiences of their child’s admission to an acute mental health care facility. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 52(7), 24–29. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20140324-02
Wilson, A. C., Mackintosh, K., Power, K., & Chan, S. W. Y. (2018). Effectiveness of self- compassion related therapies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 10(6), 979–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1037-6
Xu, S., Zhang, H., & Wang, J. (2020). Caregiver Burden and Depression Among Chinese Family Caregivers: The Role of Self-compassion. Mindfulness, 11, 1647–1654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01378-7
Yarnell, L. M., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self-compassion, interpersonal conflict resolutions, and well-being. Self and Identity, 12, 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.649545
Zessin, U., Dickhauser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self-compassion and well-being: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 7, 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12051
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
This research was approved by the Ethics Committee of XXX Center in XXX. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest or financial disclosures related to this work.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shenaar-Golan, V., Gur, A. & Yatzkar, U. Emotion regulation and subjective well-being among parents of children with behavioral and emotional problems – the role of self-compassion. Curr Psychol 42, 20995–21006 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03228-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03228-2